Cities in the Sand: Cyrene and Leptis Magna
MARGARET SCHOLEY-HILL and DAVID LEWIS

Now that access to Libya has improved, visitors are returning again to its famed archaeological sites. We were particularly pleased in July to have Dr Paul Roberts of the British Museum as our guide to two contrasting sites on the Libyan coastline - in Cyrenaica province on the eastern borders, the City of Cyrene; and to the west in Tripolitania, the City of Leptis Magna. From the remains as we see them reconstructed today, Cyrene looks predominantly Greek in character, Leptis predominantly Roman, although both cities had a long, varied multi-cultural history Scholars have pieced together something of the history of these cities from the writings of such ancient authorities as Herodotus, Diodorus of Sicily, Sallust and Pliny the Elder.  Accounts of European travellers in the 18th and 19th centuries are also invaluable for archaeological research. Two explorers. Captain R Murdock Smith and Commander E A Porcher from the British Museum, were among the first to provide accurate surveys.

Their book, The History of Recent Discoveries at Cyrenaica, 1864, gave an account of all discoveries made up to that date. Prints show the two in a work base set up in one of the numerous rock-cut tombs in a vast necropolis at Cyrene. Many of these tombs have since been wrecked by robbers, and above ground monuments severely damaged by sand erosion. By the end of the 19th century little was to be seen of ruins, which were now protected from the worst effects of weather by a covering of debris and sand.

Rigorous scientific investigations, including the splendid work of reconstruction, have been taking place in Libya from about 1910, particularly under the auspices of the Italians.  Since independence in 1951. the Libyan Department of Antiquities has overseen all excavation and conservation work.

Our first city, Cyrene, stands on a plateau with a long view of the sea. It is usually said to have been founded in 630 BC - according to Herodotus by Greek colonists from Thera. Its monuments have a distinctive Greek character, although it evolved over many centuries in a not altogether typical or homogenous way. The cultural influences in the architecture can still be seen and there is  evidence of respect for former  residents' culture, such as a Greek  (Ptolemaic) naval monument of the 3rd century BC left standing in the agora or market place when this was rebuilt in Roman times.  Interestingly, as late as the 2nd century AD, the Temple of Apollo was rebuilt in the then out-of-date Doric style. This was after the Jewish Revolt in Cyrenaica of 115-117 AD.

Among other important religious complexes was the Sanctuary of Zeus,  with its splendid Doric temple dating back to c.500 BC – somewhat larger than both the Temple of Zeus on Mount Olympus and the Parthenon.  It can be compared with the early Doric temples of Sicily. Again, after the Jewish Revolt, this was carefully reconstructed under Hadrian in its original archaic style. At the same time, the re-use of buildings, monuments and  materials was common practice.  Roman memorial sculptures have been found in niches in Greek tombs. 

More extensive Romanisation took place at Cyrene with the construction of Baths by Hadrian.   Also in the 2^nd century AD, the Theatre of Myrtusa (Cyrene's oldest) was extended from its semi-circular plan to full amphitheatre for staging gladiatorial sports. A great wall, however, separated the blood sport area from the area sacred to Apollo.

In 262 AD a major earthquake reduced the City to its central districts, and a further disastrous earthquake occurred  in 365 AD. Finally, the Arabs overran Cyrenaica in 643 AD  and the city slowly fell into its final decline.

Leptis Magna

Leptis Magna, with its well placed harbour and rich hinterland, began life as a trading post founded by Semitic colonists from Phoenicia early in the 1st millennium BC. In the course of the 6th century BC it came under the general control of the great City of Carthage. Its character and population remained Punic into Roman times. (Locally it was known by its Punic name Lepcis – Latinised to Leptis Magna in the 4^th Century AD.) Increase prosperity came with Pax Romana under Augustus and significant architectural developments took place. Perhaps one of the most evocative building complexes is the wonderful market, dedicated during the reign of Hadrian in 126-127 AD.  But the most splendid buildings were those donated by the Emperor Septimius Severus  (193-211 AD) and his dynasty (until 235 AD). Severus (who died on campaign in York) was born in Leptis of Berber blood and he and his gifted Syrian wife, Julia Domna, attracted many scientists and architects to work in the City. To honour his birthplace he granted Leptis "Italian" status – receiving exemption from land tax. The harbour was refurbished and new construction included an exotic nymphaeum (fountain) and an enormous walled forum lavishly  decorated with statuary and reliefs. The arcade arches were adorned with marble Medusa heads. The adjoining Basilica was similarly richly constructed in 9-8 BC at the expense of an immensely rich local citizen, Annobal Tapapius Rufus. It contained two elegant octagonal pavilions with marble counters for arrays of food produce. Fish and olive oil were two important sources of the city's wealth.  A tablet can be seen here recording the standard measures of the time - Punic, Alexandrine and Roman. Rufus also sponsored a fine sandstone theatre in 1-2 AD, recording his benevolence in a faultlessly carved inscription in Latin and Punic. The stage is flanked by statues of the Dioscuri. 

Extensive building programmes continued in the 1st century AD, when an amphitheatre was added (the largest in  North Africa) connected with a great Circus for chariot racing next to the sea shore.  Particularly fine and lavish baths, echoing the great baths of imperial Rome, were  decorated using materials and craftsmen specially brought in from Asia Minor. Not far inside the Leptis site entrance stands an elaborate, fully restored, four-way Triumphal Arch, its reliefs celebrating the triumphs  of the Severan dynasty. The Arch is witness to the less than happy succession of Severus's sons Caracalla and Geta. The jealous Caracalla soon had his brother murdered and had all representations of him obliterated from the reliefs (damnatio).

Subsequent instability in the 3rd century encouraged attacks by Berber tribes. The first Christian churches date from the late 4th and 5th centuries when the large secular Roman

Basilica was also transformed into a church. The invasion of the Vandals and their capture of Carthage forced wide scale political changes throughout the area. At Leptis they demolished the city walls and this had the effect of allowing the sand from the desert to slowly engulf the buildings. In the 6th century, Justinian recaptured the city and attempted some reconstruction,  but the hinterland was no longer economically viable. Again, it was the Arab invasion of 643 AD that heralded the end of  Leptis Magna.  Ironically, the encroaching sands that ruined the City also preserved it for much later visitors to admire today.